CREATING AND USING A DATABASE

1. Creating the database
2. Determining the database structure
3. Setting up the file structure
4. Entering the data
5. Using the database

Creating the database
Consider your needs
- Report you will need
- Inquiries you will want to make

Determining the database structure
a. Sketch the table structure - what kind of data is needed in each column.
b. Determine characteristics of field - Field name (each field must have a unique field name) - Field type - Field width (the maximum number of characters, including decimal places)

Field Types
- Character field - contain descriptive data
- Numeric fields - contain numbers used for calculation (specify the number of decimal places)
- Data fields
- Logical fields - keep track of true/false or yes/no conditions


Setting up the file structure
1. Design the structure for each table (define the table - define each field in the table - define primary key)
2. Set up the table in design view

Entering the data
1. Enter data into the tables in datasheet view
2. Enter data into the tables by using a graphical form

Using the database
Many operations can be performed to view and modify the data
- List the records
- List specific fields
- Make a query
- Modify the data

List the records
a. Displays the table in datasheet view (displays all rows and all columns)
b. Can be displayed on monitor or printed

List specific fields
a. Displays only the fields you want to view
b. Use SQL to select the desired fields

Query
Use SQL or query-by-example to produce a query (use relational operator to define criteria - Can be displayed on monitor or printed - Can be formatted into a report)

Modify the data
a. Add new records
b. Update (make changes to) an existing record
c. Delete records

THE OBJECT-ORIENTED DATABASE MODEL

1. Designed to manipulated complex data types (examples include maps and audio and video files)
2. The object is the main focus
3. Designed to incorporate object-oriented programming with large amounts of complex data


An Object
a. Represent a real-world entity (person, place, or thing)
b. Includes both the entity and actions that work with that entity (Includes characteristics (properties) of entity - Includes actions the entity can perform - Include actions that can be performed on the entity)

Data Warehouses
a. Contain data that has been captured in company databases (can contain data that has been gathered from external sources)
b. Use a variey of analytical tools

Analytical Tools
1. Online analytical processing (OLAP) software (Analyzes data from all database in the data warehouse -Provides different "views" of the same data)
2. Data mining uses sophisticated statistical and artificial intelligence techniques (Looks for previously unrecognized patterns, relationship, and trends among the data

DBMS (3) - Data Integrity

Data Integrity

• Refers to the degree to which data is accurate and reliable
• Integrity constraints - rules all data must follow

- if integrity constraints are not followed, the data is unreliable

Integrity Constraints

• Define acceptable values for a field (for example, the value of a month cannot be greater than 12)
• Primary keys cannot be duplicated
• Foreign keys cannot be used unless they exist as a primary key (A SalesID that is used in the customer table must exist as a primary key in the salesperson table)

DATABASE MANAGEMENT

• Database Management System (DBMS) - allows you to create a database and enter, modify, and retrieve data as needed
• Available at all levels (Sophisticated systems for a mainframe environment) - (Inexpensive, easy-to-use personal computer systems)

DATABASE FEATURES

• Data dictionary
• Data maintenance
• Data retrieval
• Concurrency control
• Security
• Backup and recovery

Data Dictionary

• Stores data about the tables and fields within the database (for each table, it stores the table name and relationships to other tables) - (For each field, it records information about that field)
• Also called a catalog
  

Data Maintenance

• Three basic operation (Adding new data - Modifying existing data - Deleting data)
• Two methods for performing operations (Interacting directly with the DBMS - Using programs to access the data using special commands)

Data Retrieval

• Involves extracting the desired data
• Two primary forms of data retrieval (Queries - Reports)

QUERIES

• You present a set of criteria; the DBMS selects matching data from the database
• Use a query language (Structured Query Language [SQL] is supported by most relational database) - (Query-by-example [QBE] uses a graphical interface to generate the SQL) - (Display results in a table-like grid)

SQL - Uses English-like statements (-SELECT specifies the field(s) to be selected - FROM specifies the table(s) containing the fields - JOIN specifies the relationship between tables - WHERE specifies the criteria that must be met

QUERY BY EXAMPLE

• User adds tables to query (user drags fields down into grid at bottom of window - criteria can be added by typing them in the Criteria row of the grid)
• Use can execute the query by clicking an icon a toolbar

QUERY RESULTS

• Retrieved records are displayed as rows
• Field specified in the select clause are displayed as columns

REPORTS

• Provide a formatted presentation of data from the database (Allow you to group reports and total by group, if desires - Normally contaon more data than querues)
• Reports are designed with a report generator

Concurrency control

• Manages simulataneous database users (If several users tried to update the same record at the same time, apdates might not be processed correctly)
• Employs a record-locking scheme (Once a user accesses a record, it is locked until the first update is complete
  

Security

• Many security features are built into most DBMS software (Users can be required to enter a user ID and password - Each user ID may have different access to the data [Read-only, permits the user to look at the data but not change it - Update, permits the user to make changes to the data - No privilages, user can not read or update the data
  

Backup and recovery

• Backup - a copy of database (Backup should be made periodically)
• Recovery - replace a damaged database with the good backup
  

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS: CLASSIC MODELS AND NEW APPROACHES

Classical Management Functions

• Planning -devising plans for the organization and setting goals to achieve the plan.
• Organizing - deciding how to use the organization's resources
• Staffing - hiring and training workers
• Directing - guiding employees to perform their work in a way that support to organization's goals
• Controlling - monitoring the organization's progress toward reaching its goals

Strategic Level

• Managers at this level are often called executives
• Focus - long-range view of the firm
• Primary function - planning

Tactical level

• Managers at this level are often called middle managers
• Focus - carrying out the visions of top-level managers
• Primary functions - organizing and staffing

Operational Level

• Managers at this level are often called supervisors
• Focus - meeting that day's objectives
• Primary functions - directing and controlling

Management Information System

• A set of formal business system designed to provide information for an organization

1. - Integrates the five management functions

• MIS manager runs the MIS department

1. - Also called Chief Information Officer
2. - Must be comfortable with computer technology and the organization's business

The New Management Model

• The traditional model has changed over the years

1. - Largely due to advances in technology
2. - Also due to changes in the global business environment

• Features of the new model

1. - A flattened pyramid
2. - The impact of groupwave
3. - Team work

A Flattened Pyramid

• Networks connect people to data and other people

1. - Make information more readily available
2. - Allow managers to supervise more people
3. - Allow decision-making authority to be spread throughout the organization

The Impact of Groupware

• Groupware permits information to be assembled in central database

1. - Employees in the different department or different offices can share information directly

• Impact managers in different ways

The Impact on Managers

• The way information is shared

1. - People acquire power in an organization by knowing things others do not
2. - Groupware reduces this imbalance
   

• Changes in managerial authority

1. - with information more readily available, decisions are more prone to being second guessed

DBMS: Getting Data Together

The Hierarchy of Data

• Field – a group of one or more characters that has a specific meaning
• The smallest meaningful unit of data
• Describes one characteristic of a person, place, or thing
• Record – the set of fields containing data about a person, place, or thing
• File – a collection of related records

File System Approach

• Each application had its own file

Data was not shared among application

• Resulted in a great deal of data redundancy, the repetition of the same data value

Increased the risk of inaccurate data
Increased the amount of storage space needed.

Database Approach

A collection of related tables

• In database technology, a file is called a table
• Each entity is stored in a separate table
• Tables are linked by a relationship between primary and foreign keys
  

Primary Key

A field that uniquely identifies a record

• SalesID can be a primary key for the Salesperson table
• Once a salesID appear in the table, no other salesperson can have that ID

Foreign Key

A field in one table that is a primary key in another table

• SalesID can be used in the Customer table to identify the salesperson who serves that customer
• The same SalesID can appear in many customer records (a salesperson can serve many customers)

DATABASE MODEL

• Define the way a database organizes data
• Four main models

1. Hierarchical
2. Network
3. Relational
4. Object-oriented

Hierarchical Model
1. Arranges data in hierarchical "parent-child" relationship

• Each parent record can have many child records
• Each child record has only one parent record

2. Complex and inflexible


Network Model
1. Arranges data in complex network of "parent-child" relationship

• Each parent record can have many child records
• Each child record can have many parent records

2. Complex and inflexible

Relational Model
1. Data organized in table format

• Columns represent fields
• Row represent record

2. Tables related by primary/foreign key relationship
3. Most current database development uses this model



Object-oriented Model
1. Designed to deal with complex data types
2. Focuses on the object

• An object represents an entity
• Represents data about that entity and the types of operations that change that entity

Database Management: Getting Data Together

Objectives

• Describe the hierarchy of data
• Explain the differences between files and databases
• List the four database models
• Describe the concept of data integrity
• Describe the functions of a database management system
• Describe the process of creating a database in general terms
• Compare and contrast relational and object-oriented databases
• Explain what a data warehouse is and how it differs from a database

Summary

• The field is the smallest meaningful unit of data and consists of a group of one or more characters. The group of fields containing data about a single entity makes up a record, and the collection of related records is a file.
• The traditional file processing approach to information systems results in a great deal of data redundancy—duplication of data. Records in a file are identified by their primary key field (or just primary key), which contains a unique value for each record.
• A database is a collection of related files (tables in database terminology) in which each table contains data concerning only a single entity. Tables are linked, or related, when a field, called a foreign key, in one table contains the value of a primary key in another table.
• There are four main database models (methods of organizing data within a database): hierarchical, network, relational, and object-oriented. Most databases today use the relational database model, which organizes data in a table format using rows and columns.
• Data integrity refers to the degree in which data is accurate and reliable. Integrity constraints are rules that data must follow to maintain integrity.
• A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software package that allows the user to create a database, enter data into the database, modify the data as required, and retrieve information from the database.
• Databases contain a data dictionary that stores data about the tables and fields within the database.
• Data maintenance consists of three basic operations: adding new data, modifying existing data, and deleting data; it is performed either directly through DBMS routines or by programs containing special commands.
• Data retrieval involves extracting the desired data from the database. Queries retrieve data from a database by presenting criteria that the DBMS uses to select the desired data. Queries are written using a query language. Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard query language supported by most DBMSs.
• Queries can also be prepared by using a graphical interface to set criteria. This method is called query-by-example (QBE).
• A report provides a formatted presentation of data from the database. Whereas query results are normally displayed on the screen, reports are generally printed. Reports are designed using a report generator built into the DBMS.
• The DBMS employs a record locking scheme to prevent problems that can occur when two users attempt to update the same record concurrently.
• One way to provide database security is for the DBMS to assign specific privileges to each user. Read-only privilege permits record viewing only, update privilege allows the user to make changes, and a user with no privilege is prevented from even seeing the data.
• Backup and recovery features of a DBMS assist the user in creating a backup, or duplicate copy, of the database at periodic intervals, and allow for recovery by restoring the database from the backup copy. Some DBMSs assist recovery by automatically reprocessing transactions processed after the backup was made.
• Creating a database starts with specifying the table structure—a list of fields including the field name, type of data stored in the field, and the size, or width, of the field. Data types supported by most DBMSs include character fields, which contain descriptions; numeric fields, which contain numbers for calculations; date fields, which contain dates; and logical fields, which keep track of true/false, yes/no conditions. In Microsoft Access, table structure is specified in the design view of the table.
• Data is entered into the table in the datasheet view, which lists all the records stored in the table.
• Relational operators are symbols that are used to make comparisons when formulating queries.
• The object-oriented database model was developed to meet the need of manipulating complex data types such as audio and video. It focuses on the object, which represents a real-world entity and contains both data and operations on the data. Object-oriented database management systems (OODBMS) create and manipulate object-oriented databases. Object/relational database management systems (O/RDBMS) are relational DBMSs enhanced with object-oriented capabilities.
• Online transaction processing (OLTP) software processes the day-to-day transactions of an organization by updating data stored in databases. Since databases are not organized to provide the data that management needs to make decisions, data warehouses were developed. A data warehouse contains data that has been captured from the database in summary form, on a scheduled basis, over a period of time. Data in a data warehouse is analyzed by online analytical processing (OLAP) software to provide information to management.
• Data mining uses sophisticated statistical and artificial intelligence techniques to discover previously unrecognized patterns, relationships, correlations, and trends among the data in the data warehouse.

Key Terms

backup - character fields - data dictionary - Data integrity - Data maintenance - Data mining - data redundancy - Data retrieval - data warehouse - database - Database Management System (DBMS) - datasheet view - date fields - design view - field - file - foreign key -Integrity constraints - logical fields - models (methods of organizing data within a database) -numeric fields - Object/relational database management systems (O/RDBMS) -Object-oriented database management systems (OODBMS) - object-oriented database model - online analytical processing (OLAP) - Online transaction processing (OLTP) -primary key field or primary key - Queries - query language - query-by-example (QBE) -Read-only privilege - record -record locking - recovery -related - relational database -Relational operators -report - report generator - Structured Query Language (SQL) - table structure -tables -update privilege

Management Information Systems: Classical Models and New Approaches

Objectives

• List and describe the classic functions of managers: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling
• Describe the purpose and components of a management information system (MIS)
• Explain how computer networking and related software have flattened the classic management pyramid
• Describe how companies use employees in task-oriented teams
• Describe the purpose and function of sophisticated software for top managers
• Explain the problems and solutions related to managing personal computers
• Explain the concept of total cost of personal computer ownership

Summary

• All managers have five main functions: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling. A management pyramid shows that top-level managers focus primarily on strategic functions, especially long-range planning; middle-level managers focus on the tactical, especially the organizing and staffing required to implement plans; and low-level managers are concerned mainly with operational functions—controlling schedules, costs, and quality—as well as with directing personnel.
• A management information system (MIS) is a set of business systems designed to provide information for decision making. A computerized MIS is most effective if it is integrated throughout the entire organization.
• The MIS manager, a person who is familiar with both computer technology and the organization’s business, runs the MIS department.
• The traditional management pyramid has been flattened by the dissemination and sharing of information over computer networks. The impact of groupware has removed exclusive manager access to information and has forced managers to share decision-making. Some companies are organizing workers into teams around tasks.
• A decision support system (DSS) is a computer system that supports managers in nonroutine decision-making tasks. A DSS involves a model, a mathematical representation of a real-life situation. A computerized model allows a manager to try various "what-if" options by varying the inputs, or independent variables, to see how they affect the outputs, or dependent variables. The use of a computer model to reach a decision about a real-life situation is called simulation. Since the decision-making process must be fast, the DSS is interactive, allowing the user to communicate directly with the computer system and affect its activities.
• An executive information system (EIS) is a decision support system for senior-level executives, who make decisions that affect an entire company.
• When personal computers first became popular in the business world, most businesses did not have general policies regarding them, which led to several problems. Many businesses created the position of personal computer manager (later called the network manager or LAN manager) to ensure coordination of personal computers, established acquisition policies to solve the compatibility problem, established information centers or support centers to provide assistance to users, provided formal and informal training for users, and used software to monitor their existing personal computers.
• Many organizations rely on the one-shot, teacher-in-the-classroom model for training, if they offer training at all. Follow-up support is necessary, and can be provided through in house gurus or information centers. CD-ROM and Web-based training have also proved to be effective, both for initial and follow up training.
• Managers often have little idea of how many computers are in use within a department or company or what software is being used on them. Software is available to keep track of all hardware and software installed on company networks.
• Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) refers to a methodology originally developed by the Gartner Group to determine all the costs involved in owning personal computers. These costs involve not only the original purchase price of the hardware and software, but also less obvious costs such as training, support, upgrades, and maintenance.

Key Terms

controlling - decision support system (DSS) - dependent variables - directing - executive - information system (EIS) - independent variables - information centers or support centers - management information system (MIS) - MIS manager - model - organizing - personal computer manager or network manager or LAN manager - planning - simulation - staffing - Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)

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Mac OXS GUI

What is a GUI?

Almost all computers provide a graphical user interface to make performing tasks on the computer much more intuitive.

Each platform's GUI will be different, but every single one has certain elements in common.

The pointer
The mouse (or another pointing input device) can be used to navigate a pointer around the space on the computer screen. You use the pointer to manipulate the objects on the screen: click them, select them, move them, or resize them (to name a few basic operations).

Desktop
Just like the space on a desk where you can arrange all your folders, documents, and tools, so does the GUI have a an area of the screen (usually, the whole screen) where the GUI elements can be stored and arranged.

Icons
An icon is a graphical image that represents the files, programs, folders, and all other data and elements that can exist on your computer. You manipulate an element on the computer by manipulating its icon in the GUI. For instance, double-clicking a program icon to launch it, or dragging a file icon into a folder icon to move the data.

Windows
A window represents a program, or a space on your desktop where activity can take place (like running a program). You can move windows around the desktop in any order, and resize them to fit any size you might need.

Menus or toolbars
Most windows will have a series of menus through which you can navigate to display the names of commands that can be carried out in that window. A toolbar is similar, except graphical icons represent the commands instead of text names.


Three-dimensional window depth
In addition to being resized to take up as much two-dimensional space as you want on your desktop, windows can also be stacked into three-dimensional layers, with one covering another. Like the desktop analogy, this is analogous to papers or folders being stacks one on top of the other on a real desktop.

PLATFORMS

There are currently three main platforms for running a computer: Windows, Macintosh, and Linux.



Windows


Microsoft Windows is arguably the most used operating system in the world (some estimate that between 80% to 90% of computers run Windows). It certainly is the easiest platform for which to find software. Windows runs on PC computer hardware, especially requiring an Intel-compatible processor (such as the ones made by manufacturers like Intel or AMD).
Windows XP, the latest version of Windows, uses a graphical user interface (GUI) to manage files and run software.


Macintosh

Next in popularity to Windows, the Macintosh platform by Apple is the most common alternative to Windows. The Macintosh operating system requires different hardware than Windows, in particular the PowerPC processor (mostly manufactured by Motorola).
The latest version of the Macintosh platform is called OSX. The Mac platform has long been favored by artists and designers for graphical and multimedia work.



Linux



Rapidly gaining ground in the platform popularity contest is the Linux platform. Part of its success lies in its roots in the Open Source software movement - there are many distributions of Linux available for free to download off the Internet. Linux offers a great amount of user control and configuration to the user, but also requires a greater amount of technical proficiency in order to install and configure it.The Linux operating systems can run on the same PC hardware as Windows. In fact, many users of Linux will often configure their computers to dual boot - where the user has the choice to run either Windows or Linux when they turn on the computer.

File Management

"Knowledge worker"

A knowledge worker is anyone whose daily job is to develop or use knowledge. In today's "Information Age", this encompasses a huge number of types of employment. In fact, over the past century, the "dominant type of occupation has gone from farm laborer, to blue collar worker, to white collar worker, to knowledge worker.", according to Brainbench CEO Mike Rusiello.
Knowledge workers need to organize, process, collect, record, rewrite, edit, and learn vast amounts of knowledge, in a short time. All this mental work demands a vast amount of organization. So where do knowledge workers find a powerful organization tool to make the job easier? The computer, of course-you knew that was coming.
The key to organization on the computer is through file management. If you are going to use a computer for work, school, or leisure-not just run programs on it, but truly use it as knowledge management tool-then it is absolutely essential to understand computer file management.



Operating Systems

A computer is nothing more than a doorstop without its operating system. Well, that's not quite fair, but the point is that the operating system is what ties everything you do on the computer together. The operating system:


· Is a platform that enables other programs to run on the computer.
· Translates input from devices such as the keyboard, the mouse, a scanner, etc.
· Sends output to devices such as a printer, the monitor, etc.
· Manages files and directories on the removable disks and hard drives connected to the computer.
· Provides tools for security, especially if the computer is part of a network.
Operating system relationship between hardware and application software

OTHER USES OF "THE"

Main points

You do not normally use `the' with proper nouns referring to people.
You do use `the' with many proper nouns referring to geographical places.
You use `the' with some adjectives to talk about groups of people.

You do not normally use `the' with proper nouns that are people's names.

However, if you are talking about a family, you can say `the Browns'.

You use `the' with some titles, such as `the Queen of England', and with the names of some organizations, buildings, newspapers, and works of art.
...the United Nations...
...the Taj Mahal...
...the Times...
...the Mona Lisa.

You do use `the' with some proper nouns referring to geographical places.
...the Bay of Biscay...
...the Suez Canal.
...the Arabian Gulf...
...the Pacific Ocean.

You use `the' with countries whose names include words such as `kingdom', `republic', `states', or `union'.
...the United Kingdom...
...the Soviet Union.

You use `the' with countries that have plural nouns as their names.
...the Netherlands...
...the Philippines.

Note that you do not use `the' with countries that have singular nouns as their names, such as `China', `Italy', or `Turkey'.

You use `the' with names of mountain ranges and groups of islands.
...the Alps...
...the Himalayas.
...the Bahamas...
...the Canaries.

Note that you do not use `the' with the names of individual mountains such as `Everest' or `Etna', or the names of individual islands such as `Sicily', `Minorca', or `Bali'. You use `the' with regions of the world, or regions of a country that include `north', `south', `east', or `west'.
...the Middle East...
...the Far East.
...the north of England...
...the west of Ireland.

Note that there are some exceptions.
...North America...
...South-East Asia.

You do not use `the' with `northern', `southern', `eastern', or `western' and a singular name. ...northern England...
...western Africa.

You use `the' with the names of areas of water such as seas, oceans, rivers, canals, gulfs, and straits.
...the Mediterranean Sea...
...the Atlantic Ocean.
...the river Ganges...
...the Panama Canal.
...the Gulf of Mexico...
...the straits of Gibraltar.

Note that you do not use `the' with lakes.
...Lake Geneva...
...Lake Superior.

Note that you do not use `the' with continents, cities, streets, or addresses.
...Asia...
...Tokyo.
...Oxford Street...
...15 Park Street.

You use `the' with adjectives such as `rich', `poor', `young', `old', and `unemployed' to talk about a general group of people.
You do not need a noun.
Only the rich could afford his firm's products.
They were discussing the problem of the unemployed.

When you use `the' with an adjective as the subject of a verb, you use a plural verb.
In the cities the poor are as badly off as they were in the villages.

You use `the' with some nationality adjectives to talk about the people who live in a country.
They will be increasingly dependent on the support of the French.
The Spanish claimed that the money had not been paid.

With other nationalities, you use a plural noun.
...Germans...
...the Americans.
When you use `the' with a nationality adjective as the subject of a verb, you use a plural verb. The British are worried.

You use `the' with superlatives.
He was the cleverest man I ever knew.
He was the youngest.
His shoulders hurt the worst.
It was the most exciting summer of their lives.

MAIN USES OF "THE"'

Main points

* You can use `the' in front of any noun.
* You use `the' when the person you are talking to knows which person or thing you mean.
* You use `the' when you are referring back to someone or something.
* You use `the' when you are specifying which person or thing you are talking about.
* You use `the' when you are referring to something that is unique.
* You use `the' when you want to use one thing as an example to say something about all things of the same type.

The' is called the definite article, and is the commonest determiner.
You use `the' when the person you are talking to knows which person or thing you mean.
You can use `the' in front of any noun, whether it is a singular count noun, an uncount noun, or a plural count noun.
She dropped the can.
I remembered the fun I had with them.
The girls were not at home.

You use `the' with a noun when you are referring back to someone or something that has already been mentioned.
I called for a waiter... ...The waiter with a moustache came.
I have bought a house in Wales... ...The house is in an agricultural area.

You use `the' with a noun and a qualifier, such as a prepositional phrase or a relative clause, when you are specifying which person or thing you are talking about.
I've no idea about the geography of Scotland.
The book that I recommended now costs over three pounds.

You use `the' with a noun when you are referring to something of which there is only one in the world.
They all sat in the sun.
We have landed men on the moon.
The sky was a brilliant blue.

You also use `the' when you are referring to something of which there is only one in a particular place.
Mrs Robertson heard that the church had been bombed.
He decided to put some words on the blackboard.

You can use `the' with a singular count noun when you want to make a general statement about all things of that type.

For example, if you say `The whale is the largest mammal in the world', you mean all whales, not one particular whale.
The computer allows us to deal with a lot of data very quickly.
My father's favourite flower is the rose.

You can use `the' with a singular count noun when you are referring to a system or service.

For example, you can use `the phone' to refer to a telephone system and `the bus' to refer to a bus service.
I don't like using the phone.
How long does it take on the train?

You can use `the' with the name of a musical instrument when you are talking about someone's ability to play the instrument.
`You play the guitar, I see,' said Simon.
Geoff plays the piano very well.

DETERMINERS

Main points

Determiners are used at the beginning of noun groups.
You use specific determiners when people know exactly which things or people you are talking about.
You use general determiners to talk about people or things without saying exactly who or what they are.

When you use a determiner, you put it at the beginning of a noun group, in front of numbers or adjectives.
I met the two Swedish girls in London.
Our main bedroom is through there. Have you got another red card?
Several young boys were waiting.

When the people or things that you are talking about have already been mentioned, or the people you are talking to know exactly which ones you mean, you use a specific determiner.

The man began to run towards the boy.
Young people don't like these operas.
Her face was very red.

The specific determiners are: the definite article: the - demonstratives: this that these those possessives:my your his her its our their

Note that `your' is used both for the singular and plural possessive. See `this', `that', `these', and `those' as pronouns.

When you are mentioning people or things for the first time, or talking about them generally without saying exactly which ones you mean, you use a general determiner.
There was a man in the lift.
We went to an art exhibition.
You can stop at any time you like.
There were several reasons for this.

The general determiners are: a, all, an, another, any, both, each, either, enough, every, few, fewer, less, little, many, more, most, much, neither, no, other, several, some

Each general determiner is used with particular types of noun, such as:

singular count nouns a, an, another, any, each, either, every, neither, no
I got a postcard from Susan.
Any big tin container will do. He opened another shop .

plural count nouns all-enough-many-no-some - any-few-more-other - both-fewer-most-several
There were few doctors available.
He spoke many different languages.
Several projects were postponed.

uncount nouns all, any, enough, less, little, more, most, much, no, some
There was little applause.
We need more information
He did not speak much English.

WARNING:
The following general determiners can never be used with uncount nouns. a, an, another, both, each, either, every, few, many, neither, several


Most of the determiners are also pronouns, except `the', `a', `an', `every', `no' and the possessives.
I saw several in the woods last night.
Have you got any that I could borrow?

There is enough for all of us. You use `one' as a pronoun instead of `a' or `an', `none' instead of `no', and `each' instead of `every'.
Have you got one?
There are none left.
Each has a separate box and number.

POSSESSION

Main points

* Possessives and possessive pronouns are used to say that one person or thing belongs to another or is connected with another.
* You use apostrophe s ('s) to say who something belongs to.
* You use phrases with `of' to say that one person or thing belongs to another or is connected with another.

You use possessives to say that a person or thing belongs to another person or thing or is connected with them.

The possessives are sometimes called `possessive adjectives'.
my - your - his - her - its - our - their

Note that `your' is both singular and plural.
I'd been waiting a long time to park my car.
They took off their shoes.

WARNING:
The possessive `its' is not spelled with an apostrophe.
The form `it's' with an apostrophe is the short form for `it is' or `it has'.

You put numbers and adjectives after the possessive and in front of the noun.
Their two small children were playing outside.
She got a bicycle on her sixth birthday.

You use a possessive pronoun when you want to refer to a person or thing and to say who that person or thing belongs to or is connected with.

The possessive pronouns are: mine-yours-his-hers-ours-theirs

Note that `yours' is both singular and plural.
Is that coffee yours or mine ?
It was his fault, not theirs.

WARNING:
There is no possessive pronoun `its'.

You can also say who or what something belongs to or is connected with by using a noun with apostrophe s ('s).

For example,
if John owns a motorbike, you can refer to it as `John's motorbike'.
Sylvia put her hand on John's arm.
I like the car's design.

You add apostrophe s ('s) to singular nouns and irregular plural nouns, usually referring to people rather than things.
I wore a pair of my sister's boots.
Children's birthday parties can be boring.

With plural nouns ending in `-s' you only add the apostrophe (').
It is not his parents' problem.

You add apostrophe s ('s) to people's names, even when they end in `-s'.
Could you give me Charles's address?

Note that when you use two or more names linked by `and', you put the apostrophe s ('s) after the last name.
They have bought Sue and Tim's car.

When you want to refer to someone's home, or to some common shops and places of work, you can use apostrophe s ('s) after a name or noun on its own.
He's round at David's.
He bought it at the chemist's.
She must go to the doctor's.

You can also use apostrophe s ('s) with some expressions of time to identify something, or to say how much time is involved.
Did you see the cartoon in yesterday's newspaper?
They have four weeks' holiday per year.

You can use a prepositional phrase beginning with `of' to say that one person or thing belongs to or is connected with another.
She is the mother of the boy who lives next door.
Ellen aimlessly turned the pages of her magazine.

After `of' you can use a possessive pronoun, or a noun or name with apostrophe s ('s).
He was an old friend of mine.
That word was a favourite of your father's.
She's a friend of Stephen's.

You can add `own' after a possessive, or a noun or name with apostrophe s ('s), for emphasis.
My own view is that there are no serious problems.
The professor's own answer may be unacceptable.

ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

Main points

* You put opinion adjectives in front of descriptive adjectives.
* You put general opinion adjectives in front of specific opinion adjectives.
* You can sometimes vary the order of adjectives.
* If you use two or more descriptive adjectives, you put them in a particular order.
* If you use a noun in front of another noun, you put any adjectives in front of the first noun.

You often want to add more information to a noun than you can with one adjective. In theory, you can use the adjectives in any order, depending on the quality you want to emphasize. In practice, however, there is a normal order.

When you use two or more adjectives in front of a noun, you usually put an adjective that expresses your opinion in front of an adjective that just describes something.
You live in a nice big house.
He is a naughty little boy.
She was wearing a beautiful pink suit.

When you use more than one adjective to express your opinion, an adjective with a more general meaning such as `good', `bad', `nice', or `lovely' usually comes before an adjective with a more specific meaning such as `comfortable', `clean', or `dirty'.
I sat in a lovely comfortable armchair in the corner.
He put on a nice clean shirt.

You can use adjectives to describe various qualities of people or things. For example, you might want to indicate their size, their shape, or the country they come from.

Descriptive adjectives belong to six main types, but you are unlikely ever to use all six types in the same noun group. If you did, you would normally put them in the following order:

size age shape colour nationality material


This means that if you want to use an `age' adjective and a `nationality' adjective, you put the `age' adjective first.
We met some young Chinese girls.

Similarly, a `shape' adjective normally comes before a `colour' adjective.
He had round black eyes.

Other combinations of adjectives follow the same order. Note that `material' means any substance, not only cloth.
There was a large round wooden table in the room.
The man was carrying a small black plastic bag.

You usually put comparative and superlative adjectives in front of other adjectives.
Some of the better English actors have gone to live in Hollywood.
These are the highest monthly figures on record.

When you use a noun in front of another noun, you never put adjectives between them. You put any adjectives in front of the first noun.
He works in the French film industry.
He receives a large weekly cash payment.

When you use two adjectives as the complement of a link verb, you use a conjunction such as `and' to link them. With three or more adjectives, you link the last two with a conjunction, and put commas after the others.
The day was hot and dusty.
The room was large but square.
The house was old, damp and smelly.
We felt hot, tired and thirsty.

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES

Main points

* There are two main positions for adjectives: in front of a noun, or as the complement of a link verb.

* Most adjectives can be used in either of these positions, but some adjectives can only be used in one.

Most adjectives can be used in a noun group, after determiners and numbers if there are any, in front of the noun.
He had a beautiful smile.
She bought a loaf of white bread.
There was no clear evidence.

Most adjectives can also be used after a link verb such as `be', `become', or `feel'.
I'm cold.
I felt angry.
Nobody seemed amused.

Some adjectives are normally used only after a link verb.

afraid, alive, alone, asleep, aware, content, due, glad, ill, ready, sorry, sure,
unable, well


For example, you can say `She was glad', but you do not talk about `a glad woman'.
I wanted to be alone.
We were getting ready for bed.
I'm not quite sure.
He didn't know whether to feel glad or sorry.

Some adjectives are normally used only in front of a noun.

eastern atomic indoor occasional
northern countless introductory outdoor
southern digital maximum
western existing neighbouring


For example, you talk about `an atomic bomb', but you do not say `The bomb was atomic'.
He sent countless letters to the newspapers.
This book includes a good introductory chapter on forests.

When you use an adjective to emphasize a strong feeling or opinion, it always comes in front of a noun.

absolute, complete, entire, outright, perfect, positive, pure, real, total, true, utter

Some of it was absolute rubbish.
He made me feel like a complete idiot.

Some adjectives that describe size or age can come after a noun group consisting of a number or determiner and a noun that indicates the unit of measurement.

deep long tall wide
high old thick

He was about six feet tall.
The water was several metres deep.
The baby is nine months old.

Note that you do not say `two pounds heavy', you say `two pounds in weight'.

A few adjectives are used alone after a noun.

designate, elect, galore, incarnate

She was now the president elect.
There are empty houses galore.

A few adjectives have a different meaning depending on whether they come in front of or after a noun.

concerned, involved, present, proper, responsible


For example, `the concerned mother' means a mother who is worried, but `the mother concerned' means the mother who has been mentioned.
It's one of those incredibly involved stories.
The people involved are all doctors.
I'm worried about the present situation.
Of the 18 people present, I knew only one.
Her parents were trying to act in a responsible manner.
We do not know the person responsible for his death.

MID EXAM: for tekomp A-B

DO your personal mid examination by following the link: clik here for the listening. then take the next part of test, this for the structure section. Here is the last, reading and comprehension section.

Note:

There are 10 questions of each section of the test.

• While finding a problem to open the text just write this word “aleeya” a part of the problem is solved.

• After completing, bring your personal result to the class by printing them coloring as the color of every single question has been asked.

  Important:

I just take the result from who comes and identified as a student.

• Register by writing your number and name into the shout box "Pa Kabar" in the right side.

There is no mid exam without identifying your self first.

QUIZ 1 for TEKOMP: A - B

eflnet.com will bring you to come and find Grammar problem then see the General Grammar.
Here you will face several quiz of Error Correction.
But you need only to complete the General Exercises section.
They are about Grammar Practice Quiz 1 and 2.

Note:
After completing the Practice Quiz 1 and 2 (25 questions each):
do print screen for the result page.
Bring them to your class (WEDNESDAY, 25 OF MARCH – ONLY).
By Color Printing (only)
Good luck!!